The history of management: a global perspective

Introduction One of the keys to successful management is the ability to understand and apply modern management principles and techniques effectively. Managers must develop an in-depth knowledge of past and present models, theories and processes in order to manage effectively and intelligently. Contemporary management practice is pervasive in every aspect of human life within all types of organizations. Basic management techniques have been traced to the city of Ur (Iraq) in 3000 BC where Sumerian priests were the first to keep written records as a means of recording business transactions. Translations from early Egyptian papyri, dating back to 1300 BC, recognized the importance of organization and administration in bureaucratic states. Similar records have been found for ancient China[1]. Moses is credited with employing his father-in-law, Jethro, as a management consultant. Jethro helped design the organization through which Moses ruled the Hebrews in the desert[2]. Around 400 BC, Socrates defined management as a skill separate from technical knowledge and experience[3]. Plato also recognized management as a separate art and promoted principles of specialization[4]. In The Republic, Plato describes how carefully selected young men should be trained so that they would develop the appropriate personalities and skills necessary to serve as leaders. Diocletian, a Roman emperor in AD 284, initiated organizational hierarchies when he reorganized his empire into 101 provinces and grouped them into 13 dioceses. This marked the beginning of delegation of authority and chain of command[5]. Although ancient Rome's management records are incomplete, the complexity of the administration influenced the development of managerial techniques. Using the scalar principle and the delegation of authority, the city of Rome efficiently expanded to an empire. Attila the Hun, king over the royal tribe around AD 433, successfully merged all of the independent Hunnish tribes into a single nation. Attila considered leadership to be a privilege[6]. He accepted the responsibility of directing the actions of others to achieve the goals of the organization. He delegated authority at varying levels and with accepted accountability for successes and failures. His principles of leadership still stand firm today in modern management[6].